This research sought to better understand the risk of turf damage from various forms of traffic during frost and frozen soil conditions to help guide decisions on frost delays and maintenance practices during cold weather. Photos by Alec Kowalewski
Editor’s note: This article is reprinted from the March 15, 2024, issue of the USGA Green Section Record. Copyright USGA. All rights reserved. The original article can be accessed here.
Most recommendations with respect to frost delays are fairly conservative, suggesting significant delays on mornings with frost to avoid turfgrass damage. However, there is often pushback from golfers who are skeptical about whether these delays are truly
necessary. Additionally, some golf courses’ allowing maintenance practices or play on frost-covered turfgrass suggest that doing so does not cause lasting injury. It is also poorly understood how turfgrass species, mowing height and traffic
source — i.e., foot traffic, cart traffic or maintenance equipment — affect turfgrass injury during frost. Frost delays cause significant reductions in revenue, conflict between golfers and facility staff, and a loss of valuable maintenance
time early in the morning, so having a better understanding of the risks associated with traffic on frost-covered turf is valuable.
In February 2022, a series of USGA-funded studies was initiated at Oregon State University to evaluate the effects of foot, golf cart and roller traffic on turfgrass visual quality during winter conditions, particularly when frost or frozen soil is present.
Effects of foot traffic on an annual bluegrass putting green during frost
Foot traffic during frost was applied to two separate annual bluegrass putting greens maintained at a mowing height of 0.140 inch (3.5 millimeters) in Corvallis, Ore. The first was a sand-based putting green, while the second was a native soil putting
green. Foot traffic was applied in the morning on eight days in February 2022 when frost was present. Steps were randomly applied, and the research team wore either work boots or golf shoes. Air temperature and soil moisture measurements were also
taken on days when frost occurred, and traffic was applied. Plots were rated for visual traffic injury on a 1-3 scale (1=no injury; 3=extreme injury), and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) values were recorded. Foot-traffic treatments
applied to each green were as follows:
- No traffic (control).
- 6 steps on frosted turf.
- 12 steps on frosted turf.
- 24 steps on frosted turf.
- 48 steps on frosted turf.
- 48 steps on turf after frost thawed.
Results
Findings from this initial frost research determined that foot traffic on annual bluegrass putting greens, sand-based or native soil, applied during eight separate frost events did not cause any damage. The qualitative visual ratings for all foot-traffic
treatments showed no injury present, and all ratings, including the no-traffic control, were 1.0 (no injury present). Similarly, the quantitative NDVI ratings showed no significant difference between any of the foot-traffic treatments and the no-traffic
control, with all 42 values between 0.78 and 0.85.
These results suggest that allowing a limited number of golfers to putt while frost is still present wouldn’t result in any injury to an annual bluegrass green in this environment. This finding runs contrary to long-standing recommendations to implement
frost delays to protect putting greens from foot traffic damage. However, it is important to note that this finding applies only to foot traffic and only to annual bluegrass putting greens. The impact of foot traffic on creeping bentgrass and perennial
ryegrass is currently being investigated, and it’s possible that other species may not have the same level of tolerance. As we discuss next, there are also implications from cart traffic and maintenance equipment that need to be considered.
However, if no putting green maintenance was planned on a frosty morning and a limited number of golfers were going to walk and not take carts, a frost delay may not be necessary. We recommend testing the impact of foot traffic on frost-covered turf
at each specific location before making any changes to an existing frost-delay policy.
Table 1. Just one pass of golf cart traffic during frost injured a native soil creeping bentgrass fairway in Corvallis, Ore. Both traffic treatments (one or seven passes) while frost was present caused injury that lasted more than two weeks. Cart traffic with frost was applied at 8 a.m. while cart traffic without frost was applied at 1 p.m. on Feb. 12 and 13, 2022. Three additional ratings through March 1 show the level of recovery. Means in each column followed by the same letter are not statistically different according to Fisher's LSD at 0.05 significance level.
Effects of daily cart traffic on fairways in winter and during periods of frost
Research was conducted in January and February of 2022 to investigate the effects of daily winter cart traffic on a creeping bentgrass fairway, including during periods of frost. In 2023, the study was expanded to include annual bluegrass and perennial
ryegrass fairways and will be ongoing through 2025. Cart traffic is applied using a Club Car Turf Carryall 2 utility vehicle driving onto individual plots either one or seven times. Frost was observed on the fairways multiple times in January and
February when cart traffic was applied in the morning (8 a.m.), but frost was never observed when traffic was applied in the afternoon (1 p.m.).
2022 Results
It was found that as little as one pass of cart traffic during a frost event produced noticeable damage on a creeping bentgrass fairway. Seven passes with the cart on a frost-covered bentgrass fairway resulted in significantly more visual injury that
persisted for over two weeks. Interestingly, even without frost, seven passes of the golf cart still reduced creeping bentgrass quality (Table 1). This highlights the importance of managing cart traffic in the winter, since fairway turf has a reduced
ability to recover from wear and tear.
2023 Results
In 2023, annual bluegrass and perennial ryegrass were added to the study to further investigate the effects of daily winter cart traffic on fairway turf. The research was again conducted in January and February, and frost was observed on multiple mornings.
On the creeping bentgrass fairway, reductions in turf quality resulted when cart traffic was applied at both 8 a.m. and 1 p.m. (Figure 1). In general, both cart traffic treatments caused a similar reduction in turf quality compared to the no-traffic control
plots. Correlation analysis between turfgrass quality and environmental factors determined that morning soil temperature was the most effective parameter for predicting cart traffic injury on bentgrass. When morning soil temperatures are less than
32 F (0 C), traffic applied in the morning or afternoon will result in bentgrass injury at unacceptable levels. The presence or absence of frost, afternoon soil temperature, morning or afternoon air temperature, and morning or afternoon volumetric
water content were poorly correlated with turfgrass quality and thus not good predicters of cart traffic injury. On bentgrass, cart traffic had more of an impact compared to the no-traffic control than was observed on annual bluegrass and perennial
ryegrass.
On the annual bluegrass and perennial ryegrass fairways, frost events were followed by reductions in turf quality when cart traffic was applied at 8 a.m. and 1 p.m. From Jan. 25 to Feb. 13, the 8 a.m. cart traffic regularly reduced annual bluegrass turfgrass
quality compared to the 1 p.m. cart traffic. Again, correlation analysis determined that morning soil temperature was the most effective parameter for predicting annual bluegrass cart traffic injury. When morning soil temperatures were less than 32
F, traffic applied in the morning or afternoon caused injury to annual bluegrass fairways. However, with perennial ryegrass, unacceptable injury occurred when traffic was applied with morning temperatures less than or equal to 35 F (1.7 C). The lowest
quality ratings of any species during the study came from ryegrass, with a turf quality of 4.0 on Feb. 6 and 8.
Figure 1. Daily winter golf cart traffic reduced turf quality for three cool-season grasses whether frost was present. Creeping bentgrass quality was affected most compared to the no-traffic control. Overall, morning soil temperature that was below freezing was the best predictor of injury. (Turf quality was rated eight times for each species throughout January and February.)
Effects of daily rolling on annual bluegrass putting greens in winter and during periods of frost
As part of the ongoing research project, a study was conducted from Jan. 2 to Feb. 28, 2023, to investigate the effects of daily rolling applied to an annual bluegrass putting green. Rolling treatments were applied with a Tru-Turf 48-inch roller.
Results
On the annual bluegrass putting green, frost events were followed by reductions in annual bluegrass quality when rolling was applied at 8 a.m. and 1 p.m. From Jan. 25 to Feb. 17, the 8 a.m. rolling reduced annual bluegrass turfgrass quality when compared
to the 1 p.m. rolling. As with cart traffic on fairways, correlation analysis determined that morning soil temperature was the most effective parameter for predicting injury from rolling. With annual bluegrass, unacceptable injury occurred when rolling
was applied at morning temperatures less than or equal to 32 F.
Years 3 and 4 (2024 and 2025) research objectives
The results in this article are an update on the ongoing research project at Oregon State University. In 2024 and 2025, cart traffic treatments on the three cool-season grasses will continue, and rolling applications on the annual bluegrass putting green
will also be repeated. Of note is the addition of daily morning and afternoon foot-traffic studies on creeping bentgrass and perennial ryegrass. This is important, since foot traffic on these species was not evaluated in the 2023 trial, and it is
vital for golf course superintendents to know if other species besides annual bluegrass are tolerant of foot traffic during frost conditions. The type of shoes used to apply traffic has also been expanded to include slip-on waterproof work shoes.
Preliminary findings collected in March 2024 suggest that foot traffic applied to creeping bentgrass during freezing soil temperatures will cause some visible damage, but not as severe as cart traffic. Foot traffic applied to perennial ryegrass during
freezing conditions in 2024 did not produce a reduction in visual quality. Weather data will also be collected in 2024 and 2025 and correlated with turfgrass injury. Early results from this next round of research indicate that morning and afternoon
foot traffic applied on days with freezing soil temperatures in the morning produced slight damage to creeping bentgrass, but no damage to perennial ryegrass.
The effects of cart traffic on frost-covered turf are immediately evident and can last a while.
Conclusions
The finding that foot traffic on an annual bluegrass putting green during frost conditions did not produce visual turfgrass injury is significant. Although this could have implications for when golfers begin play, it’s critical to remember that
this research shows that cart traffic does injure frost-covered or frozen turf, so cart restrictions would still be needed. Further complicating matters is the finding that maintenance equipment damages the greens during frost. Based on this, mowing,
rolling and other practices would still have to be delayed even if golfers could potentially walk on the surfaces safely. Reconciling this issue requires either an adjustment to the level of putting green preparation or to the timing of that work
— or both. It is ultimately up to each individual superintendent to make the right decision for their unique situation.
The overarching take-home message from the golf cart traffic and rolling studies is that when morning soil temperatures are less than 32 F, traffic applied in the morning or afternoon will result in some level of injury. Based on these results, it would
not be recommended to use golf carts or maintenance equipment on turf areas during frost and frozen soil conditions.
The research says
- Foot traffic on a frost-covered annual bluegrass putting green did not cause a reduction in turfgrass quality.
- Daily golf cart traffic on frost-covered creeping bentgrass, annual bluegrass and perennial ryegrass fairways consistently reduced turf quality compared to the no-traffic control. When morning temperatures were below freezing, repeated cart traffic
in the afternoon also caused damage, even if frost wasn’t present.
- Rolling annual bluegrass putting greens on the morning of frost events led to a reduction in turf quality.
- Analysis determined that morning soil temperature was the most effective parameter for predicting annual bluegrass rolling injury, with unacceptable injury occurring when morning temperatures were less than 32 F.
- Regardless of whether frost was present, the most-accurate predictor of traffic injury during cold weather was morning soil temperature. These findings suggest that cart traffic and rolling should be avoided on days when soil temperatures are below
freezing.
When compared to the control plots (right images), damage was clearly evident from cart and roller traffic (left images) during freezing soil conditions even without the presence of frost.
Literature cited
- Ackerson, B.J., R.A. Beier and D.L. Martin. 2015. Ground level air convection produces frost damage patterns in turfgrass. International Journal of Biometeorology 59:1655-1665 (https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-015-0972-3).
- GCSAA. 2017. Land Use Characteristics and Environmental Stewardship Programs on U.S. Golf Courses. Golf Course Environmental Profile, Phase II, Volume IV, 8.
Alec Kowalewski (alec.kowalewski@oregonstate.edu) is an associate professor and turfgrass specialist, Chas Schmid is an associate professor, Brian McDonald is a senior faculty research assistant, Robert Starchvick is a faculty research assistant, and Zach Hamilton and Cole Stover are graduate students, all in the Department of Horticulture at Oregon State University, Corvallis.